1930s

Politics & Law
 1) At the beginning of the 1930s, Franklin Roosevelt was reelected, keeping him the governor of New York while Herbert Hoover was the current US president. [i]

2) Hoover declared suspension in 1931 on First World War debts and reparations. [ii]

3) Herbert Hoover represented the change in policies from the unsatisfactory previous strategies to new and inventive policies of the future. However the result of these policies was not what he intended and his program of voluntary cooperation and limited government activism proved unsuccessful

. Following these failures, Hoover lost the presidential election in 1932 to Franklin Roosevelt, the former governor of New York. [iii]

4) In 1932 Roosevelt was elected president and then on March 4, 1933, was inaugurated as president of the United States. [iv]

5) In that 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt received 57% of the nations votes. This was the first time since 1852 that a democrat won bulk of the vote. [v]

6) Also in 1932, US senate opened the doors for Huey Long. [vi]

7) In 1933 the Twentieth Amendment, also called the “Lame Duck” amendment, was made official. Its purpose made the set date for presidential inaugurations for January 20th. [vii]

8) Also in Roosevelt’s reign, the democrats stood strong in the congressional elections in 1934. [viii]

9) During Roosevelt’s presidency, he created the New Deal. This consisted of an attack on the Great Depression hindering three areas: recovery for the economy, relief for the needy, and reforms to the ward off future depressions. [ix]

 10) In 1935, to challenge Roosevelt in the 1936 election, Charles Coughlin founded the National Union for Social Justice, or Union Party, going against Roosevelt’s New Deal. [x]

11) Roosevelt defeats Landon in the 1936 elections extending his presidency to a second term in office. [xi]

12) Roosevelt held a strong reign of the presidency. In 1937 his court-packing legislation defeated in the senate. [xii]

13) From 1937 to 1938 federal spending decreased. This proved that the New Deal had not fulfilled its purpose of restoring the income brought in by manufacturing and agriculture. Roosevelt’s New Deal also declined in popularity. [xiii]

14) In January of 1939 Roosevelt indicated a stop for the New Deal reforms. He though that rather than extending it the people should focus on the progress they already accomplished. [xiv]

15) In September of 1938 congress passed the Administrative Reorganization Act. This gave Roosevelt and every new president to be power over the bureaucracy. [xv]

Culture & Society
 1) The Golden age of Radio and film accrued in the 1930’s. In 1935 films were first shown in color. [xvi]

 2) Popular culture was gathered in the 1930’s for the purpose of strengthening the basic morals and beliefs of American life. This includes the middle- class ethics, family, capitalism, and democracy. [xvii]

 3) Between agricultural migrants, African Americans, Latinos, and American Indians unemployment and suffering was very severe. [xviii]

 4) Women had to work additional hours to support their families because the amount of marriages and births in the social classes decreased. [xix]

 5) During 1928- 1932 democrats became the majority party for the first time in the twentieth century due to the rise of the New Deal that allowed women and different groups to vote. [xx]

 6) In 1930 the congress decided to give $420 million dollars for public developments. [xxi]

 7) In 1931, nine young black men known as the “Scottsboro Boys” who lived in Scottsboro Alabama were accused of false rape charges. The nine young men were all saved from the electric chair due to a team of lawyers who fought until they could prove innocence. [xxii]

 8) Due to the great depression there were many unemployed workers. On March 7th of 1932, autoworkers decided to take matters into their own hands and demand for work. They charged at Henry Ford’s River Rouge factory in Dearborn, Michigan. Ford’s security forces fought back and with gunfire ending up killing for demonstrators. [xxiii]

 9) In 1934, a mass amount of textile workers from Toledo, Minneapolis, San Francisco, and elsewhere created the largest strike in American history. Due to this strike, police and the National Guard shot many people. [xxiv]

 10) The Committee of Industrial Organization known as the CIO was established in 1935. This committee was created by a coalition of mine workers such as John L Lewis and the head of Clothing Workers, Sidney Hillman. [xxv]

 11) The National Housing Act was put forth and passed in 1937. [xxvi]

 12) In 1937 the Farm Security Administration was created by the Agricultural Department to make resident farmers become independent. They did this by providing them with housing and loans. [xxvii]

 13) The recession scare took place during 1937-1938. [xxviii]

 14) The Fair Labor Standards Act that restated the New Deal pledge was passed in June of 1938. This provided a suitable standard of living for the workers.

<p style="margin-left:0in;mso-add-space:auto"> [xxix]

<p style="margin:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-add-space:auto;mso-pagination:none;mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace: none"> 15) In 1938, the case Gains v. Canada claimed that there should be law school established for African Americans, this case was agreed on and passed. [xxx]

Wars & Foreign Relations
 Isolationism 

Through the 1930’s the United States operated under the plan of Isolationism. The country wanted to stay out of international affairs and worry about issues at home. They saw themselves as innocent bystand ers in the affairs of the world. There was often little discussion with other countries and no aid or treaties were in talks. President Hoove   r would sometimes refuse to see other leaders. [xxxi]  President Roosevelt felt as many Americans did, that the nation’s highest priority was to tackle the domestic causes and repercussions of the de pression. [xxxii] This was true but at the same time Roosevelt had to stray from his internationalist ways. After World War 1 Roosevelt was in agreement with one of Wilson’s visions, that the United States should take the lead in making the world safe for democracy. [xxxiii] During his 1932 Presidential campaign he backed off his position to support the League of Nations as well as forgiving European debt. [xxxiv]

Just because we were not dealing with other countries did not mean we were not practicing diplomacy and politics with them. In his 1933 inaugural address FDR outlined what he called the Good Neighbor Policy. This meant that the U.S. would no longer try to influence Latin America, only in terms of military force. The U.S. did however still exude its influence in Latin America economically. [xxxv] Even if the answer is no, it’s still an answer so we were at least talking with other countries. We basically said please don’t talk to us so we don’t have to pretend to listen. We have an example of how America tried to stay out of international affairs, at least delaying it. In 1935 congress passes the Neutrality Acts. [xxxvi] The act forbade the sale of arms to belligerents and that civilians would only enter a warzone only at their own risk. It involved arms embargos in all directions. FDR was not entirely behind the entire act. He wanted to keep his nose out of international affairs but still wanted a say. With the Neutrality Acts it made it difficult to aid causes that would be for America’s interest. The act was invoked around the time and in response to the fact that Italy invaded Ethiopia. International tensions are rising and the United States is beginning to feel uneasy. Hiding under the blanket of Isolationism made it easy to imagine the monsters weren’t under the bed still.

 Bonus Army 

Though through the 1930’s the United States was deep in the policy of isolation and not yet pulled into another world conflict. There was a flare up of our own troops at home from the First World War however. It involves the payment of bonuses given to those soldiers who fought in World War 1. The Bonus Army, as they were called, was looking to cash in the bonus certificates they had received from congress in 1924 as a reward for their devoted service. [xxxvii]  The Bonus Army gathered in Washington D.C. in the spring and of 1   932. Most of the veterans had been unemployed since the onset of the Great Depression. It was the largest protest in the city’s history to that date. [xxxviii]  Many stayed there and camped along with their family. [xxxix]  With GDP down and the government unable to spare such funds, the Senate ended up blocking the bonus bill. [xl]  It eventually got so bad that the civil unrest began to become more aggravated. At that point President Hoover called in the U.S. Army commanded by General Douglas MacArthur to step in and get rid of the bonus marchers. [xli]  After the standoff, which involved both infantry and a handful of tanks, the next morning only 300 wounded veterans remained. [xlii]

 WWII 

While the United States was being protected by their shield of the Atlantic Ocean and isolationism, dominos begin to fall in the rest of the world. International build up is leading to the world’s largest war. In April 1939, Hitler demanded that Poland return the German territory it had been awarded after WWI. [xliii] On September 1, 1939 Germany commences its invasion of Poland and marks the beginning of World War II. [xliv] Besides Poland other things were happening in Europe too that the United States at first tried to ignore. Even before the invasion of Poland Germany was seen to be trying to expand. On September 1938 British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain went to Munich, Germany and offered Hitler terms of appeasement so Germany would leave the rest of Czechoslovakia alone. Hitler accepted. [xlv] History shows that Hitler broke that agreement and marched the German army into Czechoslovakia in 1939. [xlvi]

And while the United States was busy trying to not make treaties and get involved internationally Germany was doing the opposite, or at least appearing to, only to be deceitful. Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet treaty of nonaggression in August 1939. [xlvii] Another instance where we see Nazi Germany breaking their word. As we learned back in the 1930’s and continue to learn today in our increasingly globalized world. We must either participate in the world, or be enveloped by it.

<h3 style="margin-top:.1pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.1pt; margin-left:0in;mso-para-margin-top:.01gd;mso-para-margin-right:0in;mso-para-margin-bottom: .01gd;mso-para-margin-left:0in;mso-outline-level:3"> Commerce & the Economy 

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> In 1929 the stock market crashed which was the interlude to the Great Depression. By 1932 African Americans job rates had declined by 50% and by 1934 the average income for African American cotton farmers was below $200 annually. From 1930 to 1933 more than 9000 banks in America either closed their doors to avoid bankruptcy or went bankrupt. Overall, the Great Depression left many Americans with reduced income and a loss of confidence. [xlviii]

The Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930 raised rates and taxes on imports, these rates were the second highest in the history of the nation. [xlix]

The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was established in 1932, which allowed loans to be made to banks, insurance companies, and railroads. [l]

Revenue Act signed by Herbert Hoover in 1932 raises corporate, excise, and personal income taxes. [li]

In 1933, Roosevelt suspends banking activities by closing the nation’s banks for four days and declares a "bank holiday." [lii]

Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was a federal law that was passed in 1933 and encouraged decreased farm production in hopes of an increase in surplus. [liii]

Due to the 13 million unemployed Americans in 1933, the Civilian Conservation Corps was established which provided jobs for young men. [liv]

Tennessee Valley Authority was established in 1933, which provided flood control and better navigation within the Tennessee Valley. [lv]

In 1933, Banking Act created Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation that guaranteed the safety of deposits made in member banks through deposit insurance. [lvi]

In 1933, National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) attempts to spur industrial growth and economic recovery through approving cartels and monopolies. [lvii]

In 1933 the Eighteenth Amendment, which constituted prohibition, was repealed when the Twenty-first Amendment was ratified. [lviii]

Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA) was established in 1933 and this agency gave loans to states to aid them in the operating of relief programs statewide. [lix]

In 1934, Francis Townsend suggested the establishment of the Old Age Revolution Pension. This scheme would pay Americans over the age of sixty a monthly income of $200. Following this proposition, in August of 1935, the Social Security Act is established for the aged and unemployed. [lx]

Established in 1934 the Indian Reorganization Act, also known as the Wheeler-Howard Act, restores lands to tribal ownership and secured other certain rights to Native Americans. [lxi]

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) was created in 1934, they are in charge of enforcing any federal security laws and regulating the stock exchange. [lxii]

In 1935, the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act permits the establishment of public programs in an effort of Roosevelt’s New Deal Plan. [lxiii]

Because of the private economy that left around eight million Americans jobless in 1935, Roosevelt issued the start of the Works Progress Administration that created jobs in public works projects and served as an immense work relief program. [lxiv]

National Labor Relations Act, also known as the Wagner Act, was established in 1935 and permitted workers the right to unionize and confined the methods in which workers could counter in the private sector. [lxv]

Committee for Industrial Organization was established in 1935 which orderly placed workers into federal unions. [lxvi]

Established in 1935, the Revenue Act, otherwise known as the Wealth Act, raised taxes on corporate companies and on the individuals that produced higher incomes. [lxvii]

In 1936 a sit down strike was held against General Motors by the United Auto Workers. This strike was the catalyst in which allowed for the automobile industry to be where it is today. [lxviii]

Roosevelt’s court-packing plan was intended to fill the United States Supreme Court with individuals in favor of the New Deal legislation. This plan failed in 1937. [lxix]

Farm Security Administration was established in 1937 to assist farmers in hopes of ending poverty in the rural areas of the United States. [lxx]

National Housing Act was established by the United States Housing Authority in 1937. This act built on

a previous act that was passed in 1934 to make home mortgages affordable. [lxxi]

An economic and business recession in 1937 caused a slowed recovery from

the Great Depression. The unemployment rate was down to as low as 14 percent in 1937 however it quickly amplified and by 1938 10.4 million Americans were unemployed. The unemployment rate stayed at a high level until 1940. [lxxii]

In 938, the AFL dismisses CIO unions because they would not unionize the industry. [lxxiii]

In 1938, the Fair Labor Standards Act established a national minimum wage and also introduced overtime in certain sectors of the workforce. [lxxiv]

In 1939 the Social Security Act is amended and added benefits for spouses and widows. [lxxv]

<h3 style="margin-top:.1pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:.1pt; margin-left:0in;mso-para-margin-top:.01gd;mso-para-margin-right:0in;mso-para-margin-bottom: .01gd;mso-para-margin-left:0in;mso-outline-level:3"> Science & Technology 

By the 1930’s there were many advances in the ways of technology specifically power, communication, and automobiles. A vast number of the population were all listening to the radio and most had cars.

 Ground Transportation 

In the 1930’s close to 9 out of 10 farming families owned a car. [lxxvi]

It was now becoming increasingly unheard of for a farmer to farm without a vehicle. With added mobility this also aided in some areas farmers expanding their production, being able to reach a wider area of acreage. Not only were more and more people driving cars, the cars themselves were evolving as well. In 1932 Ford releases the Model B, the first automobile with a V-8 engine. [lxxvii] Not only were the cars progressing ther e were further strives in science with what we use cars to drive on and to drive to. In 1931 the Empire State Building was finished and remained the tallest building in the country and the world for over 5 decades. Then one year later on the other side of the continent the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco was completed. Both of these historical icons are deceptively old, with their scale it is sometimes easy to forget they were both completed before World War II.

 Hydroelectric Power 

One major breakthrough in terms of science and engineering is in the field of energy. With the use for electricity diffusing across the nation and becoming mainstream the demand for energy climbed. In the 1930’s we see a major leap forward in hydroelectric power.

In 1933 The Tennessee Valley Authority was established. [lxxviii] The Tennessee Valley was an area that was particularly affected by the Great Depression. It was also very prone to flooding. Flooding is bad, but a flood disaster in a poverty stricken area can be much worse. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) provided many things. Through the use of damns it brought a plethora of hydroelectric power to the region. It aided in flood control and irrigation as well as was a much-needed boost in economic development. The service area of the TVA is a very large encompassed area. It covers most of the area of Tennessee, has portions of Mississippi, Alabama, and Kentucky, and even some minute portions of Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia.

For the most part of the 1930’ most farmers had very little technology help that ran on electricity. They didn’t have things like milking machines for dairy farms, or washers. There were no automatic pumps or water heaters, or refrigerators. Farmers that lived in rural areas were in a sense a whole step behind much of the country they lived in. This was something that needed to change. In 1935 The Rural Electrification Administration or REA is created and brings all those potential electrical possibilities to the more rural areas. [lxxix]

Hydroelectric power was also on the rise in the west as well. Many rivers were now being damne d up. Particularly the Colorado River was tapped hard. On September 26, 1936 President Roosevelt himself pressed a button in Washington D.C. which sent electricity pulsing from the towering historic icon the Hoover Damn. [lxxx] “Where can I get some dam bait?” –Cousin Eddie, Vegas Vacation. And even more construction on the Colorado River occurred in the 1930’s, and it won’t be the last time. In 1938 the new All-American Canal was made to divert water from the Colorado River for irrigation purposes in the Imperial Valley in California. [lxxxi] Many of the various damns and taps made in the 1930’s of the Colorado River are still in use today.

Another note on energy is with the great depression the price of crude oil plummeted to 2 cents a gallon. This helped in stifling the possible emergence of another fuel source at the time. Alcohol, much as we see in today’s gasoline, was considered a new direction in energy. But after some political efforts and just the cost of the cultivation of alcohol it was eventually dismissed as a serious fuel. [lxxxii]

 Radio 

Another area in technology that we see some mass progression in is with the widespre ad u s e of the radio. By 1930 almost 9 out of 10 families owned a radio. [lxxxiii] With the use of radios at an all time high more people became plugged in. Baseball became larger now that more people could listen to the game broadca st. Particularly women became much more accustomed to America’s pastime and many became fans. [lxxxiv] Probably one of the most famous radio broadcasts happened in 1938 when Orson Welles announced his infamous War of the Worlds broadcast. [lxxxv] Welles was so convincing in his broadcast that it actually sent many people into a panic t hinking that there really were alien invaders from another planet landing on and terrorizing the Earth.

Another break through we see in the 1930’s is the emergence of the talking box we all know, the television set. In 1939 President Roosevelt conducted his first broadcast on TV. [lxxxvi] It’s hard to call this a Presidential precedent as it was probably inevitable, but FDR was the first to do so.

 Other Notes 

We also see some tech break throughs in the thirties in the area of film, both action and still. With film technology evolving the silver screen and still photographs were becoming a staple in society. In the thirties we see Color photography begins to get its feet wet. Although color photographs are by no means mainstream, people are starting to experiment and experience the capability of capturing color on an exposure of film. [lxxxvii] Color can change a perspective on things, perhaps we think of the Great Depression as worse than it maybe was simply because most of the pictures we see from those times are in drab black and white. And although the technology was progressing and filmmakers becoming creative the Great Depression was stifling to many filmmakers. Some box office hits such as Forty-Second Street and Gold Diggers of 1933 capitalized on the hope that prosperity lay just around the corner and people loved movies about such things. But a few filmmakers grappled with hard realities rather than escape them. [lxxxviii]



One major note in the field of science worth mentioning is that in 1938 German scientists discovered the process for nuclear fission. And in 1939, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, and Leo Szilard warned President FDR that the Germans may be well on their way to creating a weapon, the use of which could determine the war. [lxxxix] I would say we took that warning very serious to which we eventually beat them to the goal, a bomb that utilizes fission: The Atomic-Bomb.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [i]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007). & James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009) 538. [ii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [iii] James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009) 538. <p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [iv]   James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 722. Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 621.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [v]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 599. <p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [vi]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 609.

[vii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [viii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 609.

[ix] James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009) 538.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [x]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 609 & 621.

[xi] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 621.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xiii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 588.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xiv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 618-619.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 616.

<p style="margin:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-add-space: auto;mso-pagination:none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xvi]  James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009), 516, 518, 538.

[xvii] James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009) 538.

[xviii] James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009) 538.

[xix] James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009) 538.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xx]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 599.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxi]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 593.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 509 & 591.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxiii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 590.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxiv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 606 & 611.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 611.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxvi]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 616.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxvii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 616.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxviii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 616.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxix]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 618.

[xxx] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[xxxi]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 696.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxxii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 625.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxxiii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 625.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxxiv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 625.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxxv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 625.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xxxvi]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 649. [xxxvii]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 695.

[xxxviii]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 696.

[xxxix]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 695.

[xl]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 696.

[xli]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 696.

[xlii]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 696.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xliii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 627.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xliv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 627.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xlv]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 627.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xlvi]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 627.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [xlvii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 627.

[xlviii] James West Davidson, U.S. A Narrative History, Vol. 2: since 1865 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009) 518, 538. & Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting With the Past, 14th ed., Vol 2 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2012), 661.

[xlix] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[l] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [li] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. & James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 621.

[liii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[liv] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[lv] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[lvi] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[lvii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[lviii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [lix]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 621.

[lx] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. & James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 609. [lxi] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. <p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [lxii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 621. [lxiii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxiv] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. & James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 609. [lxv] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxvi] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxvii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxviii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxix] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxx] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxxi] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxxii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. & James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 621, 616. [lxxiii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxxiv] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxxv] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697. [lxxvi]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 706.

[lxxvii]  Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting With the Past, 14th ed., Vol 2 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2012), 689.

[lxxviii] Mary Beth Norton et. Al, A People & a Nation, 6th ed., (Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001), 697.

[lxxix]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 706.

[lxxx]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 706.

[lxxxi]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 707.

[lxxxii]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 662.

[lxxxiii]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 690.

[lxxxiv]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 690.

[lxxxv]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 690.

[lxxxvi]  Alan Brinkley, American History: Connecting With the Past, 14th ed., Vol 2 (New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2012), 691.

[lxxxvii]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 686.

<p style="margin-bottom:0in;margin-bottom:.0001pt;mso-pagination: none;tab-stops:28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align:none;text-autospace:none"> [lxxxviii]   James P. Roark et. al, The American Promise: A Compact History, 3 rd

ed., Vol. 2 (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2007), 589.

[lxxxix]  James West Davidson et. Al, Experience History: Interpreting America’s Past, Vol. 2 (New York, The McGraw-Hill Companies, 2011), 733.